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French · Vocabulary · B2 to C2

Academic French: la dissertation, le plan en trois parties and the words that hold it together

Le plan dialectique · tap a part
Open with an accroche (a hook), state the problématique (the central question) and announce the plan.On peut se demanderNous verrons d’abordLa question se pose
Nousweverronswill-seed’abordfirstque…that
noo vay-RON doo-BOR kuh · “We shall first see that…”Why: The future nous verrons announces the plan; nous replaces je.

Short answer: French academic writing follows a strict structure, taught from secondary school: the dissertation with an introduction, two or three parties, and a conclusion. The classic plan dialectique runs thèse, antithèse, synthèse. Writers use nous or on rather than je (nous verrons que…, “we shall see that…”) and fixed linking words: Tout d’abord, En outre, Cependant, En définitive. Doubt and possibility usually need the subjonctif: Il se peut que ce soit…

Linking an argument

Tout d’abord, en outre, cependant, ainsi

tout d’abord en outre cependant ainsi en définitive firstfurthermorehoweverthusultimately
Cependant marks the turn from thèse to antithèse. Each linking word normally opens its sentence and takes a comma.
Add
En outre,in additionle coûtthe costaugmente.rises
an NOOTR, luh KOO ohg-MANT · “Moreover, the cost is rising.”Why: en outre is a formal de plus.
Contrast
En revanche,on the other handl’Estthe Eastprogresse.advances
an ruh-VANSH, LEST pro-GRES · “By contrast, the East is advancing.”Why: en revanche contrasts two facts; cependant contrasts two ideas.
Consequence
Il en résulteit from-it resultsque…that
eel an ray-ZÜLT kuh · “It follows that…”Why: en refers back to what was just said.
Example
À titreby wayd’exemple,of-example
a TEETR deg-ZANPL · “By way of example,”Why: More formal than par exemple.
Academic verbs

Souligner, mettre en évidence, aborder

Hedging

Il semble que, il se peut que, sans doute

sans doute
C’estit-issans douteprobablyvrai.true
say san DOOT VRAY · “It’s probably true.”Why: False friend: sans doute means “probably”. “Without doubt” is sans aucun doute.
il semble que
Il sembleit seemsquethatce soitit bele cas.the case
eel SANBL kuh suh SWA luh KA · “It seems to be the case.”Why: il semble que usually takes the subjunctive (soit).
il se peut que
Il se peutit may-bequethatl’auteurthe authorait tort.be wrong
eel suh PUH kuh loh-TUHR ay TOR · “The author may be wrong.”Why: Possibility: subjunctive ait, from avoir.
selon
Selonaccording-toDurkheim,Durkheim……
suh-LON dür-KEM · “According to Durkheim, …”Why: Attributes a claim to someone else without endorsing it.
Citing sources

Selon Bourdieu, comme le souligne…

According to
Selonaccording-toBourdieu,Bourdieu……
suh-LON boor-DYUH · “According to Bourdieu, …”Why: selon + name: neutral attribution.
Stressing a point
Commeasle souligneit underlinesArendt,Arendt……
kom luh soo-LEENY a-REND · “As Arendt points out, …”Why: souligner = to underline, emphasise.
Paraphrase
D’aprèsafterl’auteur,the author……
da-PRAY loh-TUHR · “According to the author, …”Why: d’après is slightly less formal than selon.
Footnote
Cf.cf.op. cit.,work citedp. 45.p. 45
kon-fair · “Cf. op. cit., p. 45.”Why: op. cit. = the work already cited.
Giving a presentation

L’exposé

Keep going

Related guides

cependantConnectors →The full list of linking words.soitSubjunctive →Il se peut que, il semble que.la mise en évidenceNominalisation →Turning verbs into nouns for formal writing.la dissertationAdvanced writing →La dissertation and le commentaire.